Simulation Tools

A number of groups are working on environments for simulating surgical procedures [68,67,65]. These environments provide (at this stage) a crude computational patient model, together with more-or-less realistic instruments for manipulating the environment. Realistic simulations will depend on the development of faster computational engines as well as better input and display devices.

Ixion markets training devices for endoscopic surgery [29]. The set-up consists of a combination of ``videographics'' (stored video sequences) with endoscopic instruments operating with force-feedback inside a manikin.

Dartmouth [10] has been developing a finite-element model of skeletal muscle than simulates the non-linear force characteristics of skeletal muscle. The ultimate goal is to create a computational model of the entire patient.

The Silas B. Hays Army Hospital [66] has developed a primitive surgical simulator for the abdomen, using 3-7,000 polygons with no tactile display or force feedback.

Ian Hunter of McGill University is reportedly developing an excellent eye surgery simulator [30], although the details have not yet been published.